Kehendak Bebas, Ajaran Agama, dan Relevansinya dengan Teologi Digital di Era Digital

Oleh : Dharma Leksana, S.Th., M.Si.

Teologi.digital – Jakarta, Melalui artikel ini saya akan meneliti mengapa orang, sekalipun mengaku memiliki keyakinan agama yang kuat namun tidak otomatis berperilaku etis, memiliki sopan santun, beradab, memiliki akhlak yang baik sesuai ajaran agama dan juga tidak melakukan tindak korupsi. Pertanyaan ini menjadi sangat menarik ketika penulis menghubungkan dengan “Kehendak Bebas” manusia. Apalagi di era digital dimana ruang digital sangat memberi kebebasan bagi manusia untuk menentukan kehendak bebasnya. Mari kita diskusikan Bersama.

I. Pendahuluan.

Perdebatan mengenai kehendak bebas telah menjadi tema sentral dalam diskursus moral, etika, dan tanggung jawab di berbagai tradisi agama dan filsafat.¹ Pertanyaan mendasar tentang apakah manusia memiliki kemampuan untuk membuat pilihan secara independen atau apakah tindakan mereka telah ditentukan oleh kekuatan di luar kendali mereka terus memicu refleksi mendalam. Di era digital yang semakin maju, di mana teknologi memediasi hampir setiap aspek kehidupan manusia, diskusi ini menjadi semakin relevan. Munculnya teologi digital sebagai bidang studi yang mengeksplorasi persinggungan antara iman dan teknologi digital menawarkan lensa baru untuk menganalisis konsep-konsep abadi ini.³

Penelitian  ini bertujuan untuk berdiskusi dengan mengkaji secara komprehensif hubungan antara konsep kehendak bebas sebagaimana dipahami dalam agama-agama besar dunia—Islam, Kristen, Hindu, dan Buddha—dengan perspektif filosofis utama mengenai topik ini. Lebih lanjut, dalam tulisan ini kita akan menganalisis relevansi kehendak bebas dan ajaran agama dalam konteks teologi digital, dengan fokus khusus pada implikasi etis dan moral dari digitalisasi terhadap pilihan dan perilaku manusia, termasuk potensi tindakan korupsi.

Struktur penelitian ini akan dimulai dengan menguraikan pemahaman tentang kehendak bebas dalam masing-masing agama, diikuti dengan analisis pandangan filosofis. Kemudian, laporan ini akan membahas bagaimana konsep-konsep ini berinteraksi dengan teologi digital, terutama dalam membentuk perilaku etis dan moral di dunia maya, dan diakhiri dengan sintesis temuan dan kesimpulan.

2. Kehendak Bebas dalam Agama-Agama Utama

• 2.1 Islam:
  Dalam ajaran Islam, kehendak bebas (ikhtiyar) merupakan karunia ilahi yang membedakan manusia dan memberikannya kemampuan untuk membuat keputusan secara mandiri.9 Al-Quran menekankan pentingnya pilihan pribadi, sebagaimana tercermin dalam ayat-ayat yang menyatakan kebebasan untuk beriman atau mengingkari, serta tanggung jawab atas tindakan yang dilakukan.9 Konsep amanah (kepercayaan) juga terkait erat dengan tanggung jawab manusia dalam menggunakan kehendak bebasnya.11 Posisi otoritas dan kemampuan untuk memilih dipandang sebagai amanah dari Allah yang harus dilaksanakan dengan penuh tanggung jawab. Meskipun demikian, pemahaman tentang kehendak bebas dalam Islam tidak terlepas dari doktrin takdir ilahi (qadar) dan kemahakuasaan serta ilmu Allah yang meliputi segala sesuatu.6 Para teolog Islam menjelaskan bahwa kehendak bebas dan qadar berjalan bersamaan; Allah memiliki ilmu tentang segala sesuatu yang akan terjadi, termasuk pilihan yang akan dibuat manusia, namun ilmu ini tidak memaksa individu untuk bertindak dengan cara tertentu.6 Dengan kata lain, ilmu Allah mendahului tindakan manusia, tetapi tindakan itu sendiri tetap merupakan hasil dari kehendak bebas individu.16 Terdapat perbedaan antara kehendak universal Allah (yang mencakup segala sesuatu yang diizinkan terjadi, baik maupun buruk) dan kehendak legislatif-Nya (perbuatan baik yang Allah kehendaki dari manusia).6 Pemahaman ini membantu menjelaskan mengapa kejahatan dan penderitaan dapat ada meskipun Allah Mahakuasa dan Maha Penyayang. Dalam konteks tanggung jawab moral, Islam mengajarkan bahwa penggunaan kehendak bebas secara inheren terkait dengan pertanggungjawaban di hadapan Allah.9 Individu bertanggung jawab atas pilihan mereka untuk mematuhi atau melanggar perintah Allah. Kepatuhan terhadap perintah agama dan perilaku etis dipandang sebagai pilihan yang dibuat melalui kehendak bebas, dan atas pilihan-pilihan inilah manusia akan dihakimi.10 Ganjaran bagi perbuatan baik adalah surga, sedangkan hukuman bagi perbuatan buruk adalah neraka.22

• 2.2 Kekristenan:
  Dalam teologi Kristen, kehendak bebas dipandang sebagai kemampuan mendasar yang diberikan Tuhan kepada manusia untuk memilih antara berbagai tindakan, termasuk yang baik dan yang jahat.23 Kebebasan ini dianggap sebagai prasyarat untuk kasih dan ketaatan yang tulus kepada Tuhan. Namun, terdapat berbagai perspektif teologis mengenai sejauh mana kehendak bebas ini berlaku.24 Pandangan libertarian tentang kehendak bebas menyatakan bahwa manusia memiliki kekuatan untuk membuat pilihan yang tidak dipengaruhi oleh faktor eksternal atau takdir ilahi.29 Sebaliknya, kompatibilisme berpendapat bahwa kehendak bebas dan kedaulatan Tuhan dapat berjalan bersamaan, sering kali menyatakan bahwa manusia secara bebas memilih apa yang telah ditentukan oleh Tuhan.25 Peran kasih karunia ilahi juga signifikan dalam memungkinkan manusia untuk membuat pilihan, terutama dalam hal iman dan keselamatan.24 Etika dan moralitas Kristen sangat terkait dengan pemahaman tentang kehendak bebas dan kemampuan untuk memilih antara yang baik dan yang jahat.1 Dosa dipandang sebagai akibat dari penyalahgunaan kehendak bebas, yang mengarah pada tanggung jawab moral.23 Kisah kejatuhan manusia dalam Kitab Kejadian sering dikutip sebagai contoh pertama penggunaan kehendak bebas yang menghasilkan dosa. Namun, terdapat ketegangan teologis yang berkelanjutan antara konsep pengetahuan Tuhan tentang masa depan dan kebebasan manusia untuk memilih.25

• 2.3 Hindu:
  Dalam Hindu, kehendak bebas dipahami dalam kerangka kerja karma dan dharma.48 Karma adalah hukum sebab akibat universal, di mana tindakan (karma) menciptakan konsekuensi yang memengaruhi kehidupan masa depan. Namun, Hindu juga mengajarkan adanya interaksi antara nasib (akibat dari karma masa lalu, prarabdha) dan kehendak bebas (purushartha, usaha diri di masa kini).2 Meskipun nasib menentukan kondisi kehidupan, kehendak bebas memungkinkan individu untuk memilih bagaimana mereka menanggapi kondisi tersebut. Dharma, sebagai tugas dan kewajiban yang benar, memainkan peran penting dalam membimbing pilihan manusia menuju karma positif.48 Karma masa lalu menciptakan samskaras (kesan mental) yang memengaruhi kecenderungan dan pilihan saat ini.2 Meskipun nasib dipengaruhi oleh tindakan masa lalu, kehendak bebas saat ini dapat memengaruhi hasil di masa depan dan berpotensi mengurangi karma negatif.

• 2.4 Buddha:
  Dalam Buddhisme, karma dipahami sebagai tindakan yang disengaja (cetana) yang menghasilkan konsekuensi di masa depan.3 Meskipun Buddhisme tidak secara eksplisit mendukung kehendak bebas absolut karena doktrin anatta (tanpa-diri), ia juga tidak sepenuhnya menolaknya.106 Jalan menuju pencerahan melibatkan pengembangan kesadaran dan membuat pilihan yang bijak untuk membebaskan diri dari keberadaan yang terkondisi.5 Konsep kehendak (cetana) sebagai kekuatan pendorong di balik karma sangat penting untuk tanggung jawab moral.3

3. Perspektif Filosofis tentang Kehendak Bebas

• 3.1 Immanuel Kant: Kant berpendapat bahwa kehendak bebas adalah kondisi untuk moralitas dan akal budi praktis, membedakan antara alam fenomenal (dunia pengalaman yang diatur oleh kausalitas) dan noumenal (alam kebebasan dan moralitas).¹⁹⁴ Kant berargumen bahwa sementara dunia fenomenal bersifat deterministik, manusia, sebagai makhluk rasional, eksis di alam noumenal di mana mereka memiliki kehendak bebas, yang penting untuk tanggung jawab moral.¹⁹⁴

• 3.2 Jean-Paul Sartre: Sartre mengeksplorasi perspektif eksistensialis tentang kebebasan dan tanggung jawab radikal, menekankan bahwa eksistensi mendahului esensi dan manusia dikutuk untuk bebas.²⁰² Sartre percaya bahwa manusia dilahirkan tanpa sifat yang telah ditentukan sebelumnya dan sepenuhnya bertanggung jawab untuk menciptakan esensi mereka sendiri melalui pilihan mereka, menyoroti beban kebebasan absolut ini.²⁰⁴

• 3.3 Baruch Spinoza: Spinoza membahas determinismenya dan penolakan terhadap kehendak bebas sebagai ilusi yang timbul dari ketidaktahuan kita akan penyebab keinginan kita.²¹⁰ Spinoza berargumen bahwa segala sesuatu, termasuk tindakan manusia, ditentukan oleh rantai penyebab tak terbatas dalam satu-satunya substansi yang merupakan Tuhan atau Alam.

• 3.4 David Hume: Hume menguji pandangan kompatibilis, mendefinisikan kebebasan sebagai kekuatan untuk bertindak atau tidak bertindak sesuai dengan kehendak, dan berargumen bahwa tanggung jawab moral membutuhkan keharusan kausal.²¹⁸ Hume berpendapat bahwa tindakan bebas adalah tindakan yang disebabkan oleh keinginan dan kehendak agen.

• 3.5 Thomas Aquinas: Aquinas menganalisis pembelaan Aquinas terhadap kehendak bebas yang didasarkan pada rasionalitas manusia dan kemampuan untuk memilih antara berbagai kebaikan, merekonsiliasinya dengan providensi ilahi.²²⁶ Aquinas berpendapat bahwa kehendak bebas berakar pada ketidakseimbangan antara objek formal kehendak manusia (kebaikan itu sendiri) dan kebaikan terbatas yang menjadi objek pilihan manusia.

4. Relevansi Kehendak Bebas dan Agama dalam Teologi Digital

Teologi digital, sebagai bidang studi yang berkembang, menjembatani kesenjangan antara iman dan teknologi digital, menawarkan kerangka kerja untuk memahami bagaimana teknologi memengaruhi praktik dan pemahaman agama.³ Platform digital memediasi praktik, keyakinan, dan komunitas agama, menciptakan konteks unik untuk memahami kehendak bebas. Lingkungan digital dapat memberdayakan dan membatasi pilihan individu terkait praktik dan keyakinan agama. Komunitas agama daring, ibadah virtual, dan sumber daya digital membentuk pengalaman dan pengambilan keputusan agama. Teologi digital menawarkan ruang untuk memeriksa kembali konsep-konsep teologis tradisional seperti kehadiran, komunitas, dan otoritas dalam terang interaksi digital dan perubahan sifat pengalaman manusia daring.

5. Implikasi Etis dan Moral di Ranah Digital

Kebebasan yang dirasakan dan anonimitas ruang digital dapat memengaruhi pilihan etis dan moral, baik secara positif maupun negatif.³ Ajaran agama memberikan kerangka etis untuk perilaku daring, meskipun menerapkannya dalam lingkungan digital menghadirkan tantangan. Anonimitas daring dapat menyebabkan pemisahan dari pertimbangan etis dunia nyata. Teologi digital berupaya menjembatani kesenjangan ini dengan mendefinisikan perilaku daring yang bertanggung jawab dalam kerangka agama. Kurangnya pengawasan dan anonimitas di ruang digital dapat menciptakan peluang untuk perilaku tidak etis, termasuk tindakan yang dianggap korup dalam konteks agama atau sekuler.

Cara mengatasi tantangan ini, inisiatif berbasis agama digital di Indonesia berupaya menanamkan nilai-nilai antikorupsi melalui platform daring dan media sosial. Para ahli berpendapat bahwa kebebasan digital dapat mempengaruhi perilaku etis dan moral, dan prinsip-prinsip agama dapat memberikan panduan untuk perilaku daring yang bertanggung jawab.³ Konsep kehendak bebas dan ajaran agama perlu dipertimbangkan dalam konteks teologi digital untuk mengatasi potensi tindakan korupsi dan perilaku tidak etis di dunia maya.

6. Sintesis dan Kesimpulan

Analisis berbagai ajaran agama menunjukkan bahwa konsep kehendak bebas memiliki peran yang signifikan dalam membentuk pemahaman tentang tanggung jawab moral dan etika. Islam, Kristen, Hindu, dan Buddha, meskipun berbeda dalam teologi spesifik mereka, semuanya mengakui bahwa manusia memiliki kemampuan untuk membuat pilihan, yang kemudian menjadi dasar bagi pertanggungjawaban atas tindakan mereka.

Dalam Islam, kehendak bebas berjalan seiring dengan takdir ilahi, di mana manusia bertanggung jawab atas pilihan mereka dalam kerangka pengetahuan Allah yang maha luas. Kekristenan menawarkan berbagai perspektif, mulai dari kebebasan libertarian hingga kompatibilisme, tetapi umumnya menegaskan bahwa manusia memiliki peran aktif dalam menentukan tindakan mereka, terutama dalam hubungannya dengan kehendak Tuhan dan konsep dosa. Hindu menjelaskan tindakan manusia melalui lensa karma dan dharma, di mana kehendak bebas memungkinkan individu untuk memengaruhi masa depan mereka melalui tindakan yang selaras dengan kewajiban yang benar. Buddhisme, meskipun mengajukan pertanyaan tentang keberadaan diri yang permanen, menekankan pentingnya tindakan yang disengaja (cetana) dan pilihan yang bijak dalam jalur menuju pencerahan dan pembebasan dari siklus karma.

Perbandingan dengan perspektif filosofis mengungkapkan beragam pandangan tentang kehendak bebas. Beberapa filsuf, seperti Kant dan Aquinas, berpendapat bahwa kehendak bebas adalah prasyarat untuk moralitas dan tanggung jawab, sementara yang lain, seperti Sartre, menekankan kebebasan radikal sebagai kondisi eksistensi manusia. Spinoza dan Hume, di sisi lain, menawarkan pandangan deterministik atau kompatibilis yang menantang gagasan tentang kehendak bebas libertarian.

Dalam konteks teologi digital, konsep kehendak bebas dan ajaran agama menjadi semakin relevan. Dunia digital menawarkan ruang baru bagi manusia untuk membuat pilihan, berinteraksi, dan membentuk komunitas. Namun, kebebasan dan anonimitas yang ditawarkan oleh ruang siber juga menghadirkan tantangan etis dan moral. Digitalisasi dapat memengaruhi cara manusia membuat pilihan, dan prinsip-prinsip teologis perlu dipertimbangkan untuk memastikan bahwa perilaku daring selaras dengan nilai-nilai agama dan etika. Potensi tindakan korupsi dan perilaku tidak etis di dunia maya menjadi perhatian khusus, dan teologi digital berupaya untuk mengatasi tantangan ini dengan memberikan kerangka kerja etis berdasarkan ajaran agama.

Inisiatif berbasis agama digital di Indonesia menunjukkan upaya untuk memanfaatkan platform daring dalam menanamkan nilai-nilai antikorupsi dan mendorong perilaku etis di kalangan masyarakat digital.

Sebagai kesimpulan, hubungan antara kehendak bebas dan ajaran agama sangat kompleks dan beragam, tetapi secara umum mengakui pentingnya pilihan manusia dalam menentukan tindakan dan tanggung jawab moral. Di era digital, relevansi konsep-konsep ini dalam teologi digital semakin meningkat, karena teknologi terus membentuk cara manusia berinteraksi dan membuat keputusan.

Penulis mengakui bahwa, Refleksi teologis dan etis yang berkelanjutan diperlukan untuk menavigasi tantangan dan peluang yang ditawarkan oleh dunia digital, memastikan bahwa kebebasan yang ditawarkan oleh ruang siber digunakan dengan cara yang bertanggung jawab dan selaras dengan prinsip-prinsip agama dan moral.

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51. Karma’s Grand Drama – Shocking Lessons on Fate and Free Will from Hindu Epics!, diakses April 12, 2025, https://timeslife.com/life-hacks/karmas-grand-drama-shocking-lessons-on-fate-and-free-will-from-hindu-epics/articleshow/119219493.html
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53. Karma and Reincarnation – Hinduism Today, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.hinduismtoday.com/hindu-basics/karma-and-reincarnation/
54. Free will within Hinduism? – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/hinduism/comments/r7cr4i/free_will_within_hinduism/
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58. Humanist Common Ground: Hinduism, diakses April 12, 2025, https://americanhumanist.org/paths/hinduism/
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64. Is our destiny predetermined? If yes, then why do our actions affect our karma?, diakses April 12, 2025, https://hinduism.stackexchange.com/questions/2399/is-our-destiny-predetermined-if-yes-then-why-do-our-actions-affect-our-karma
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66. The Bhagavad Gita On Free Will And Determinism – India Currents, diakses April 12, 2025, https://indiacurrents.com/the-bhagavad-gita-on-free-will-and-determinism/
67. Which one is more dominating – freewill or karma? – Hinduism Stack Exchange, diakses April 12, 2025, https://hinduism.stackexchange.com/questions/38114/which-one-is-more-dominating-freewill-or-karma
68. Free Will in Hinduism and Christianity – 1515 Words | Essay Example – IvyPanda, diakses April 12, 2025, https://ivypanda.com/essays/free-will-in-hinduism-and-christianity/
69. What the Gita says about free will and destiny – The Times of India, diakses April 12, 2025, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/what-the-gita-says-about-free-will-and-destiny/articleshow/3377587.cms
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71. Free Will & Determinism/Karma? : r/hinduism – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/hinduism/comments/1c2t9z6/free_will_determinismkarma/
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75. An Examination of Free Will and Buddhism – Learn Religions, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.learnreligions.com/free-will-and-buddhism-449602
76. Between Neuro-Skepticism and Ultimate Liberation – Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, diakses April 12, 2025, https://tricycle.org/article/between-neuro-skepticism-and-ultimate-liberation/
77. Freedom’s Just Another Word – Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, diakses April 12, 2025, https://tricycle.org/magazine/freedoms-just-another-word/
78. Forum: How Does Karma Really Work? – Lion’s Roar, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.lionsroar.com/forum-how-does-karma-really-work/
79. Four Provocations on Digital Theology: A Response, diakses April 12, 2025, https://cursor.pubpub.org/pub/fchn8a8s
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81. Religious Ethics in the Age of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics: Exploring Moral Considerations and Ethical Perspectives – AI and Faith, diakses April 12, 2025, https://aiandfaith.org/insights/religious-ethics-in-the-age-of-artificial-intelligence-and-robotics-exploring-moral-considerations-and-ethical-perspectives/
82. Christian Ethics for a Digital Society – 9781538189665 – Rowman & Littlefield, diakses April 12, 2025, https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781538189665/Christian-Ethics-for-a-Digital-Society
83. Christian Ethics and Technology: A Battle for Souls? – Abundant Life Church Coffs Harbour, diakses April 12, 2025, https://alc.net.au/christian-ethics-technology/
84. Christian Perspectives on Technology Ethics and Online Behavior – Christian News, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.christiannewsmo.com/Christian_Perspectives_on_Technology_Ethics_and_Online_Beha_s/130.htm
85. Ethics in the Age of AI: Defining and Pursuing the Good for Our Good and the Good of Our Communities | Houston Christian University, diakses April 12, 2025, https://hc.edu/center-for-christianity-in-business/2023/01/17/ethics-in-the-age-of-ai/
86. Digital Ethics | – kateott.org, diakses April 12, 2025, https://kateott.org/digital-ethics/
87. Digital Ethics and Moral Education: A Review on Religious Culture and Ethics Curricula | ISPEC International Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, diakses April 12, 2025, https://ispecjournal.org/index.php/ispecijssh/article/view/453
88. “Tool Without A Handle: Spirituality, Virtue, and Technology Ethics”, diakses April 12, 2025, https://cyberlaw.stanford.edu/blog/2020/10/tool-without-handle-spirituality-virtue-and-technology-ethics/
89. Special Issue : Religion and Ethics in Digital Culture – MDPI, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions/special_issues/Digital_Culture
90. Mass Surveillance, digital data privacy, and Catholicism: Moral and Ethical considerations? : r/CatholicPhilosophy – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/CatholicPhilosophy/comments/1cl3yet/mass_surveillance_digital_data_privacy_and/
91. 21. Religion and views of right and wrong, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/02/26/religion-and-views-of-right-and-wrong/
92. Modern Morals: Are Morality And Religion Connected? – BetterHelp, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/morality/modern-morals-are-morality-and-religion-connected/
93. Morality and religion – Wikipedia, diakses April 12, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality_and_religion
94. Morality without Religion, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialSciences/ppecorino/INTRO_TEXT/Chapter%208%20Ethics/Reading-Morality-without-Religion.htm
95. Religion and Morality – PMC – PubMed Central, diakses April 12, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4345965/
96. Religion does not determine your morality | Carleton Newsroom, diakses April 12, 2025, https://newsroom.carleton.ca/story/religion-morality/
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99. Hinduism: Basic Beliefs – URI.org, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.uri.org/kids/world-religions/hindu-beliefs
100. Do We Really Have Free Will? | Exploring the Science & Philosophy |Jay Lakhani – YouTube, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QI3Sxp5rk10
101. Free Will, Faith, and a Journey to India – Bowdoin Student Organizations, diakses April 12, 2025, https://students.bowdoin.edu/bowdoin-review/philosophy/free-will-faith-and-a-journey-to-india/
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105. ROLE OF DHARMA IN INCREASING MORAL VALUE – Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIRFU06037.pdf
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110. Basic Buddhism: The Theory of Karma – buddhanet.net, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/karma/
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112. Achieving Free Will: a Buddhist Perspective – FPMT, diakses April 12, 2025, https://fpmt.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2008/12/FreeWill.pdf
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114. The Buddha on Karma & Free Will #buddha #buddhism #buddhateachings #freewill #philosophy #karma – YouTube, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pDhQ49SA5nM&vl=id
115. The Power and Purpose of Human Intention in Buddhism | Rubin Museum of Himalayan Art, diakses April 12, 2025, https://rubinmuseum.org/the-power-and-purpose-of-human-intention-in-buddhism/
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117. Consequences in Buddhist theories of karma – Philosophy Stack Exchange, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/107587/consequences-in-buddhist-theories-of-karma
118. The Cycle of Karma: Buddha’s Insights and Wisdom – sustainable-markets.org, diakses April 12, 2025, https://sustainable-markets.org/post/the-cycle-of-karma-buddhas-insights-and-wisdom
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120. Buddhist Hard Determinism: No Self, No Free Will, No Responsibility – CUNY Academic Works, diakses April 12, 2025, https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1115&context=kb_pubs
121. Repetti | A DEFENSE OF BUDDHISM, MEDITATION, AND FREE WILL: A THEORY OF MENTAL FREEDOM, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.zygonjournal.org/article/id/14645/
122. Determinism and Free Will – Dhamma Wiki, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.dhammawiki.com/index.php/Determinism_and_Free_Will
123. Anattā – Wikipedia, diakses April 12, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Anatta
124. No Self (Anatta) | Lion’s Roar, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.lionsroar.com/buddhism/no-self-anatta/
125. Internet Seen as Positive Influence on Education but Negative on Morality in Emerging and Developing Nations | Pew Research Center, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2015/03/19/internet-seen-as-positive-influence-on-education-but-negative-influence-on-morality-in-emerging-and-developing-nations/
126. The Relationship of Morality and Technology – Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.scu.edu/ethics/all-about-ethics/the-relationship-of-morality-and-technology/
127. Beyond Binary Morality: How AI Challenges Traditional Christian Ethical Frameworks, diakses April 12, 2025, https://exponential.org/beyond-binary-morality-how-ai-challenges-traditional-christian-ethical-frameworks/
128. RELIGIOUS ETHICS AND DIGITAL FAIRNESS: THEOLOGICAL REFLECTIONS ON ANTI-UNFAIR COMPETITION LAW AND ONLINE ADVERTISING BLOCKING | European Journal for Philosophy of Religion, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.philosophy-of-religion.eu/index.php/ejpr/article/view/4481
129. Discussing Contemporary Issues in Theology: Ethics and Morality, diakses April 12, 2025, https://mcscollege.com/resources/discussing-contemporary-issues-in-theology-ethics-and-morality
130. The Theological and Ethical Dangers Associated with Using Artificial Intelligence in Christian Religious Settings – Firebrand Magazine, diakses April 12, 2025, https://firebrandmag.com/articles/the-theological-and-ethical-dangers-associated-with-using-artificial-intelligence-in-christian-religious-settings
131. Impact of AI-Powered Technology on Religious Practices and Ethics: The Road Ahead, diakses April 12, 2025, https://asianresearchcenter.org/blog/articles/impact-of-ai-powered-technology-on-religious-practices-and-ethics-the-road-ahead
132. The Ethical Challenges of the Digital Age by Heinrich Bedford-Strohm — CTI, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.ctinquiry.org/videocasts/v/heinrich-bedford-strohm
133. Faith and Facebook in a Pluralistic Age: The Effects of Social Networking Sites on the Religious Beliefs of Emerging Adults – National Study of Youth and Religion, diakses April 12, 2025, https://youthandreligion.nd.edu/assets/230309/mcclure_2016.pdf
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135. Increases in internet use linked to a loss of religious affiliation, study finds – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/psychology/comments/7q3vi8/increases_in_internet_use_linked_to_a_loss_of/
136. Association between religiosity or spirituality and internet addiction: A systematic review, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2022.980334/full
137. Online Social Behaviors in the Context of Religiosity: A Neural-Networks-Supported Approach to Theists and Atheists – MDPI, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/13/11/1021
138. Utilization of internet for religious purposes and psychosocial outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic – PMC – PubMed Central, diakses April 12, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9729167/
139. Allah Will Ask: What Did You Do With Your Freedom? | Imam Tom Live – Yaqeen Institute, diakses April 12, 2025, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/watch/series/allah-will-ask-what-did-you-do-with-your-freedom-imam-tom-live
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141. Tim Keller: Why We Can Believe in Jesus – The Gospel Coalition, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/video/tim-keller-why-we-can-believe-in-jesus/
142. Pelagianism | Description, History, & Beliefs – Britannica, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pelagianism
143. Free will and moral responsibility | Definition, Theories, & Facts | Britannica, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/topic/free-will-and-moral-responsibility
144. How Did Christmas Trees Become So Popular? | Britannica, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/video/christmas-tree-decoration-holiday/-295615
145. The Four Layers of Consciousness | Lion’s Roar, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.lionsroar.com/the-four-layers-of-consciousness/
146. DIGITAL RELIGION AN INTRODUCTION – International Journal of Trend in Research and Development, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.ijtrd.com/papers/IJTRD25283.pdf
147. Religion in the Digital Age – Esse – Art, diakses April 12, 2025, https://esse.ca/en/religion-in-the-digital-age/
148. (Un)friendly Algorithm: Religious Freedom and Digital Technologies – Talk About, diakses April 12, 2025, https://talkabout.iclrs.org/2021/11/17/unfriendly-algorithm/
149. Digital Religion: Understanding Religious Practice in New Media Worlds – Amazon.com, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.amazon.com/Digital-Religion-Understanding-Religious-Practice/dp/041567610X
150. Exploring the impacts of artificial intelligence on freedom of religion or belief online, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13642987.2021.1968376
151. From a religious perspective, could a computer have free will? : r/religion – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/religion/comments/15isdun/from_a_religious_perspective_could_a_computer/
152. Digital Religion – Blessed are the heretics! – International Journal of Baudrillard Studies, diakses April 12, 2025, https://baudrillardstudies.ubishops.ca/digital-religion-blessed-are-the-heretics/
153. Religious communities have a moral obligation to make the internet better – Religion News Service, diakses April 12, 2025, https://religionnews.com/2022/01/19/religious-communities-have-a-moral-obligation-to-make-the-internet-better/
154. Many people in U.S., other advanced economies say it’s not necessary to believe in God to be moral – Pew Research Center, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/04/20/many-people-in-u-s-other-advanced-economies-say-its-not-necessary-to-believe-in-god-to-be-moral/
155. A Buddhist Perspective on AI: Cultivating freedom of attention and true diversity in an AI future, diakses April 12, 2025, https://futureoflife.org/religion/a-buddhist-perspective-on-ai/
156. (PDF) BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY AND ITS RELEVANCE IN DIGITAL AGE – ResearchGate, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362000086_BUDDHIST_PHILOSOPHY_AND_ITS_RELEVANCE_IN_DIGITAL_AGE
157. God in the Age of Algorithms: Toward a Digital Theology of Presence, Silence, and Judgment – ResearchGate, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390525113_God_in_the_Age_of_Algorithms_Toward_a_Digital_Theology_of_Presence_Silence_and_Judgment
158. Religion in the Digital Age: An Irreversible Process – MDPI, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/14/1/108
159. Living in a digital culture: The need for theological reflection, diakses April 12, 2025, https://scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0259-94222015000300002
160. The Challenge of Technology to Moral Theology, diakses April 12, 2025, https://jmt.scholasticahq.com/api/v1/articles/25771-the-challenge-of-technology-to-moral-theology.pdf
161. Online Conversation | The State of Religious Liberty | The Trinity Forum, diakses April 12, 2025, https://ttf.org/portfolios/online-conversation-the-state-of-religious-liberty/
162. FREEDOM OF RELIGION OR BELIEF AND FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION – The Danish Institute for Human Rights, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.humanrights.dk/files/media/document/Brief_no6_04%20FINAL-a.pdf
163. With the Freedom of Belief, the Responsibility to Accept – Ford Foundation, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.fordfoundation.org/news-and-stories/big-ideas/with-four-freedoms-four-responsibilities/with-the-freedom-of-belief-the-responsibility-to-accept/
164. Leon Fontaine – Freedom AND Responsibility » Watch Online Sermons 2025, diakses April 12, 2025, https://sermons.love/leon-fontaine/10591-leon-fontaine-freedom-and-responsibility.html
165. Private Beliefs, Public Platforms and the Rule of Law – Talk About, diakses April 12, 2025, https://talkabout.iclrs.org/2021/09/22/private-beliefs-public-platforms/
166. Statement on freedom of religion or belief and digital technology – GOV.UK, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/freedom-of-religion-or-belief-and-digital-technology-statement-at-the-international-ministerial-conference-2022/statement-on-freedom-of-religion-or-belief-and-digital-technology
167. Moral volition: Significance and symbolism, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.wisdomlib.org/concept/moral-volition
168. Cetana or volition: Significance and symbolism, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.wisdomlib.org/concept/cetana-or-volition
169. Cetanā – Wikipedia, diakses April 12, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetan%C4%81
170. Role of Intention in Buddhist Ethical Doctrine of Kamma, Thich Nhat Tu – Chua Duoc Su, diakses April 12, 2025, http://www.duocsu.org/A003be/027.html
171. Cetanā – Encyclopedia of Buddhism, diakses April 12, 2025, https://encyclopediaofbuddhism.org/wiki/Cetan%C4%81
172. The Buddha said, “Cetana (volitional act) is that which I call kamma.” A virtuous one should not doubt own virtue/sila, as doubt/vicikicchā can lead to rebirth in the lower world. Mental hindrances/nivarana delay enlightenment. One must notice the rising immoral-mental-factor and stop it. – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/theravada/comments/1iupmq1/the_buddha_said_cetana_volitional_act_is_that/
173. The Meaning of Intention – Embodied Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.embodiedphilosophy.com/the-meaning-of-intention/
174. HOW TO UNDERSTAND CETANA’s DEPENDENCY ON OTHER CAUSES? – Dhamma Wheel Buddhist Forum, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.dhammawheel.com/viewtopic.php?t=42646
175. Cetana and the Dynamics of Volition in Theravada Buddhism | Exotic India Art, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/cetana-and-dynamics-of-volition-in-theravada-buddhism-ihe008/
176. Karma, Moral Responsibility, and Buddhist Ethics – PhilPapers, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philpapers.org/archive/FINKMR.pdf
177. Digital theology: A proposal and the need for diverse voices, diakses April 12, 2025, https://cursor.pubpub.org/pub/636acu0e
178. Algorithmic Manipulation: How Social Media is Shaping our Theology – Scholars Crossing, diakses April 12, 2025, https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1234&context=eleu
179. Chapter 7 The Dynamic Future of Digital Religion Studies in – Brill, diakses April 12, 2025, https://brill.com/display/book/9789004549319/BP000015.xml
180. Toward a public theology for a digital age – ERLC – Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission, diakses April 12, 2025, https://erlc.com/resource/toward-a-public-theology-for-a-digital-age/
181. Peter M. Phillips: “The idea of Digital Theology is to look at both digital culture and theology and ask how one speaks to the other” – RISU, diakses April 12, 2025, https://risu.ua/en/peter-m-phillips-quot-the-idea-of-digital-theology-is-to-look-at-both-digital-culture-and-theology-and-ask-how-one-speaks-to-the-other-quot_n103546
182. Doing God in Digital Culture: How Digitality is Shaping Theology, diakses April 12, 2025, https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1252262/doing-god-in-digital-culture-how-digitality-is-shaping-theology
183. Phillips | DIGITAL THEOLOGY AND A POTENTIAL THEOLOGICAL APPROACH TO A METAPHYSICS OF INFORMATION | Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.zygonjournal.org/article/id/14937/
184. A Qualitative Study of Digital Religious Influence: Perspectives from Christian, Hindu, and Muslim Gen Y and Gen Z in Mumbai, India – MDPI, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/16/1/73
185. Anonymity and Digital Islamic Authority – MDPI, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/15/12/1507
186. Internet anonymity, conservative Christians: When things go bad, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.christianpost.com/voices/internet-anonymity-conservative-christians-when-things-go-bad.html
187. Exploring the Interplay of Cybersecurity Practices and Religious Psychological Beliefs in the Digital Age – ResearchGate, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383784659_Exploring_the_Interplay_of_Cybersecurity_Practices_and_Religious_Psychological_Beliefs_in_the_Digital_Age
188. Human rights, encryption and anonymity in a digital age | OHCHR, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2015/06/human-rights-encryption-and-anonymity-digital-age
189. The Future of Free Speech, Trolls, Anonymity and Fake News Online | Pew Research Center, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2017/03/29/the-future-of-free-speech-trolls-anonymity-and-fake-news-online/
190. Anonymity, Autonomy, and Accountability: Challenges to the First Amendment in Cyberspaces – Yale Law School Legal Scholarship Repository, diakses April 12, 2025, https://openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/8893/57_104YaleLJ1639_May1995_.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y
191. Full article: Online religious learning: digital epistemic authority and self-socialization in religious communities, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17439884.2023.2169833
192. Religious Discourse and Digital Society A Critical Socio-Theological Analysis – Atlantis Press, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125995211.pdf
193. (PDF) Introduction: Digital Youth and Religion – ResearchGate, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371098006_Introduction_Digital_Youth_and_Religion
194. Kant’s Demonstration of Free Will, Or, How to Do Things with Concepts | Journal of the American Philosophical Association, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-american-philosophical-association/article/kants-demonstration-of-free-will-or-how-to-do-things-with-concepts/31C9C11F6C0414B9C817A0580A416A05
195. Kant’s Conception of Free Will and Its Implications To Understanding Moral Culpability and Personal Autonomy – PhilArchive, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philarchive.org/archive/NOGKCOv1
196. Kant on Free Will and Theoretical Rationality* – Redalyc, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.redalyc.org/journal/809/80957079008/html/
197. Kant’s Social and Political Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-social-political/
198. Kant’s Moral Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/
199. Immanuel Kant – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://iep.utm.edu/kantview/
200. Kant and free will – ethics – Philosophy Stack Exchange, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/22223/kant-and-free-will
201. What is Kant’s solution to the problem of free will about? : r/askphilosophy – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/opuj6j/what_is_kants_solution_to_the_problem_of_free/
202. A student’s guide to Jean-Paul Sartre’s Existentialism and Humanism | Issue 15, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philosophynow.org/issues/15/A_students_guide_to_Jean-Paul_Sartres_Existentialism_and_Humanism
203. On freedom in Sartre’s existentialism – Philosophy Stack Exchange, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/37432/on-freedom-in-sartres-existentialism
204. What does Sartre say about free will? – WisdomShort.com, diakses April 12, 2025, https://wisdomshort.com/philosophers/jean-paul-sartre/on-free-will
205. Existentialism and the absensce of free will – Philosophy Stack Exchange, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/7502/existentialism-and-the-absensce-of-free-will
206. Existence Precedes Essence: What Sartre Really Meant | Philosophy Break, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philosophybreak.com/articles/existence-precedes-essence-what-sartre-really-meant/
207. Jean Paul Sartre: Existentialism – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://iep.utm.edu/sartre-ex/
208. Sartre and free will : r/askphilosophy – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/corvho/sartre_and_free_will/
209. What is Sartre’s stance on free will? : r/askphilosophy – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/iula2z/what_is_sartres_stance_on_free_will/
210. Spinoza on Freedom, Feeling Free, and Acting for the Good – PhilArchive, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philarchive.org/archive/MOASOF
211. Spinoza & Other Determinists | Issue 159 – Philosophy Now, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philosophynow.org/issues/159/Spinoza_and_Other_Determinists
212. BARUCH SPINOZA’S CONCEPTION OF FREEWILL AND DETERMINISM: A PHILOSOPHICAL EXPOSITION | AKU: An African Journal of Contemporary Research – ACJOL.Org, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.acjol.org/index.php/aku/article/view/4096
213. Baruch Spinoza, “Human Beings are Determined” – Philosophy Home Page, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philosophy.lander.edu/intro/spinoza.shtml
214. What Was Baruch Spinoza’s Concept of Freedom? – TheCollector, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.thecollector.com/what-was-baruch-spinoza-concept-freedom/
215. Spinoza on Free Will and Freedom | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://iep.utm.edu/spinoza-free-will-determinism/
216. Free Will and the God of Baruch Spinoza : r/religion – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/religion/comments/wr75t6/free_will_and_the_god_of_baruch_spinoza/
217. Baruch Spinoza – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/
218. Hume on Free Will – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://plato.stanford.edu/archivES/FALL2017/Entries/hume-freewill/
219. Free Will | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://iep.utm.edu/freewill/
220. Hume on Free Will – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-freewill/
221. 10 “Hume’s Lengthy Digression”: Free Will in the Treatise – PhilArchive, diakses April 12, 2025, https://philarchive.org/archive/RUSHLD
222. What did Hume consider freedom/free will? : r/askphilosophy – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/2yxt6w/what_did_hume_consider_freedomfree_will/
223. Does Hume believe in free will? : r/askphilosophy – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/vjgcuq/does_hume_believe_in_free_will/
224. Hume on Free Will, diakses April 12, 2025, https://carneades.pomona.edu/2023-186e/03.HumeFreeWill.html
225. Hume on Free Will – Argumenta – Journal of Analytic Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.argumenta.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Argumenta-Lorenzo-Greco-Hume-on-Free-Will-1.pdf
226. Aquinas on Free Will, Sin, and Ethics – Discourses on Minerva, diakses April 12, 2025, https://minervawisdom.com/2019/07/19/aquinas-on-free-will-sin-and-ethics/
227. Regarding Free Will – Ancient Insights – WordPress.com, diakses April 12, 2025, https://ancientinsights.wordpress.com/2018/02/02/regarding-free-will/
228. St. Thomas Aquinas on Freedom, Free Will, and Willing – Bellator Society, diakses April 12, 2025, https://bellatorsociety.com/blog-posts/st-thomas-aquinas-on-freedom-free-will-and-willing/
229. Aquinas and free will : r/CatholicPhilosophy – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/CatholicPhilosophy/comments/1eabuqr/aquinas_and_free_will/
230. Freedom of the Will – Thomistic Philosophy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://aquinasonline.com/freedom-of-the-will/
231. St. Thomas Day Lecture: “Free Choice: What It Is Not, and What It Is”, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.thomasaquinas.edu/news/st-thomas-day-lecture-free-choice-what-it-not-and-what-it
232. SUMMA THEOLOGIAE: Free-will (Prima Pars, Q. 83) – New Advent, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.newadvent.org/summa/1083.htm
233. St Thomas Aquinas: Divine Providence, Free Will, and Determinism | Eclectic Orthodoxy, diakses April 12, 2025, https://afkimel.wordpress.com/2023/11/01/st-thomas-aquinas-divine-providence-free-will-and-determinism/
234. journal.aripafi.or.id, diakses April 11, 2025, https://journal.aripafi.or.id/index.php/jbpakk/article/download/983/1385/5411
235. (PDF) Pendidikan Kristen dan Moralitas di Dunia Digital:: Integrasi …, diakses April 11, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390328532_Pendidikan_Kristen_dan_Moralitas_di_Dunia_Digital_Integrasi_Teologi_dalam_Pembentukan_Etika_di_Era_Teknologi_bagi_Generasi_Alpha
236. Kristen dan Teknologi: Etika, Literasi dan Ciptaan – Neliti, diakses April 11, 2025, https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/326374-kristen-dan-teknologi-etika-literasi-dan-09bd7bea.pdf
237. EDUKATIF: JURNAL ILMU PENDIDIKAN Penggunaan Teknologi menurut Iman Kristen di Era Digital Citraningsih Basongan, diakses April 11, 2025, https://edukatif.org/edukatif/article/download/2883/pdf
238. Teologi Digital – detikNews, diakses April 11, 2025, https://news.detik.com/kolom/d-4429537/teologi-digital
239. 1 BAB II LANDASAN TEORI A. Teknologi, Teologi dan Ibadah 1. Pengertian Teknologi Teknologi berasal dari kata Yunani techonologo, diakses April 11, 2025, http://digilib-iakntoraja.ac.id/2363/5/adheline_bab_2.pdf
240. Membangun Masyarakat Digital Yang Beretika: Mengintegrasikan Nilai-Nilai Kristen Di Era Teknologi Digital 5.0, diakses April 11, 2025, https://journal.sttsimpson.ac.id/index.php/DJCE/article/download/747/334/3598
241. Moralitas Teknologi: Etika dalam Media Sosial Perspektif Immanuel Kant – Jurnal Universitas Sanata Dharma, diakses April 11, 2025, https://e-journal.usd.ac.id/index.php/senafil/article/download/8373/3877
242. MISIONAL EKLESIOLOGI BUDAYA DIGITAL: MENGURAI TANTANGAN GEJALA TRANSHUMANIS DAN CYBORG – JURNAL SETIA, diakses April 11, 2025, https://jurnal.sttsetia.ac.id/index.php/phr/article/download/422/208/3273
243. Can AI Teach Us About Free Will and Choice? | Psychology Today, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-digital-self/202412/can-ai-can-teach-us-about-free-will-and-choice
244. Digital Theology by David Murray – Ways to Learn at Ligonier.org, diakses April 12, 2025, https://learn.ligonier.org/articles/digital-theology
245. Redefining Humanity: A Theological Perspective on AI – God In All Things, diakses April 12, 2025, https://godinallthings.com/2023/03/27/redefining-humanity-a-theological-perspective-on-ai/
246. Free Will in Philosophical Theology: : Kevin Timpe – Bloomsbury Publishing, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/free-will-in-philosophical-theology-9781441163837/
247. Doing God in Digital Culture: How Digitality is Shaping Theology – Cursor_ Zeitschrift für explorative Theologie, diakses April 12, 2025, https://cursor.pubpub.org/pub/sk6clz8d
248. Digital Theology as Contextual Theology: A Preliminary Reflection – Cursor_ Zeitschrift für explorative Theologie, diakses April 12, 2025, https://cursor.pubpub.org/pub/a8zv8kai
249. Toward a public theology for a technological age – Jason Thacker, diakses April 12, 2025, https://jasonthacker.com/2021/02/22/toward-a-public-theology-for-a-technological-age/
250. Theology and Free Will: Human Freedom – Katherin Rogers – Closer To Truth, diakses April 12, 2025, https://closertotruth.com/video/rogka-001/
251. Digital Faith: Law, Ethics, and Theology for the Online-Engaged Church, diakses April 12, 2025, https://digitalcommons.schulichlaw.dal.ca/context/scholarly_works/article/1443/viewcontent/Digital_Faith__Law_Ethics_and_Theology_for_the_Online_Engaged_C.pdf
252. Playing as Others: Theology and Ethical Responsibility in Video Games, diakses April 12, 2025, https://christianscholars.com/playing-as-others-theology-and-ethical-responsibility-in-video-games/
253. Who Needs Digital Theology – YouTube, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vKdkSiVId8U
254. Defining Digital Theology – Cursor_ Zeitschrift für explorative Theologie – PubPub, diakses April 12, 2025, https://cursor.pubpub.org/pub/1l5hjajx
255. Book review Christian Ethics for a Digital Society by dr. Kate Ott – AI Theoloog, diakses April 12, 2025, https://aitheoloog.nl/2021/02/03/book-review-christian-ethics-for-a-digital-society-by-dr-kate-ott/
256. Ethics – CCSME, diakses April 12, 2025, https://ccsme.org/product-category/ethics/
257. The Impact of Online Media on Religious Authority – MDPI, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/15/9/1103
258. Worldview and religious-cultural orientations of the “Digital Age Human” – ResearchGate, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/381942128_Worldview_and_religious-cultural_orientations_of_the_Digital_Age_Human
259. The Moral Impact of Digital Devices, diakses April 12, 2025, https://jmt.scholasticahq.com/article/13336-the-moral-impact-of-digital-devices/attachment/36653.pdf
260. The Collision of Technology on Religion: A Overarching Complete Analysis – International Journal of Computer Applications, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.ijcaonline.org/archives/volume186/number32/patil-2024-ijca-923869.pdf
261. Tinkering with Technology and Religion in the Digital Age: The Effects of Internet Use on Religious Belief, Behavior, and Belonging, diakses April 12, 2025, https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/bitstreams/cc0a1e7e-f3da-4aa8-8fd9-bec09b615a6f/download
262. Religion and the internet: digital religion, (hyper)mediated spaces, and materiality – PMC, diakses April 12, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8525051/
263. God’s sovereignty and free will : r/TrueChristian – Reddit, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.reddit.com/r/TrueChristian/comments/jvkdc8/gods_sovereignty_and_free_will/
264. Religious Beliefs as They Relate to Beliefs about Free Will, Including Determinism, Libertarianism, and Compatibilism – Digital Commons at Loyola Marymount, diakses April 12, 2025, https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1372&context=honors-thesis
265. From sovereignty to omniscience: Digital theology as political theology of the digital · VOL 4 – Cursor_ Zeitschrift für explorative Theologie, diakses April 12, 2025, https://cursor.pubpub.org/pub/reichel-digitaltheology
266. FIRST PERSON: Three crucial areas of ethical research in technology for the digital public square | Baptist Press, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.baptistpress.com/resource-library/news/first-person-three-crucial-areas-of-ethical-research-in-technology-for-the-digital-public-square/
267. A Theological and Ethical Reflection on Digital Ecclesiology from an African Perspective, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364225741_A_Theological_and_Ethical_Reflection_on_Digital_Ecclesiology_from_an_African_Perspective
268. 3 Myths about Digital Worship – Lewis Center for Church Leadership, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.churchleadership.com/leading-ideas/3-myths-about-digital-worship/
269. Internet and Social Networks’ Impact on Religion Research Paper – IvyPanda, diakses April 12, 2025, https://ivypanda.com/essays/internet-and-social-networks-impact-on-religion/
270. Religious Communities Have a Moral Obligation to Make the Internet Better, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.interfaithamerica.org/article/religious-communities-have-a-moral-obligation-to-make-the-internet-better/
271. The Internet – A Biblical Perspective | Baptist Press, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.baptistpress.com/resource-library/sbc-life-articles/the-internet-a-biblical-perspective/
272. Who’s Got the Power? Religious Authority and the Internet – Oxford Academic, diakses April 12, 2025, https://academic.oup.com/jcmc/article/12/3/1043/4583030
273. What If I’m Destined For Hell? | Taraweeh Reflections | Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research, diakses April 12, 2025, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/watch/series/what-if-im-destined-for-hell-taraweeh-reflections-omar-suleiman
274. Why Am I Rich or Poor? | Why Me? | Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research, diakses April 12, 2025, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/watch/series/why-am-i-rich-or-poor-why-me
275. Did I Choose To Be Muslim? | Why Me? | Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research, diakses April 12, 2025, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/watch/series/did-i-choose-to-be-muslim-why-me
276. Topic: Divine Decree | Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research, diakses April 12, 2025, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/watch/faith/divine-decree
277. When Will Palestine Be Free? Signs of the Day of Judgment | Al-Aqsa: Past, Present, and Promise | Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research, diakses April 12, 2025, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/watch/series/when-will-palestine-be-free-signs-of-day-of-judgment-al-aqsa
278. What Does Allah Really Want From Me? | Dr. Omar Suleiman | Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research, diakses April 12, 2025, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/watch/lecture/what-does-allah-really-want-from-me
279. Topic: Faith | Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research, diakses April 12, 2025, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/watch/faith
280. Divine Sovereignty and Human Freedom – The Gospel Coalition, diakses April 12, 2025, https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/divine-sovereignty-human-freedom/